Importance of Breakfast in Relation to Obesity

Importance of eat in Relation to ObesityA critical evaluationThrough many influential sources, such as investigate and advertising, eat has been widely portrayed as the most important meal of the day. In fact, more than epidemiological manifest tends to support this nonion by demonstrating that eat skipping trains to an increased risk of infection of obesity (McCrory et al, 2014 Browns et al, 2013). Since the 1980s, the prevalence of over weight and obesity has sharply risen worldwide, with 1.9 billion adults being characterized as overweight and 600 million as cogent in 2014 (WHO, 2015). In the UK alone, the proportion of men and women characterized as obese has increased by 14% and 10% from the early 1990s to 2015 (Public Health England, 2017). For an individual, obesity is usually the result of an imbalance between push button consumed and energy expended (WHO, 2016). Although energy imbalance ultimately take ons to weight micturate, the primary factors ar not yet c ompletely understood. Currently, in that respect is no enjoin linking specific foods to obesity, however recently, much attention has been given to eating behaviours, such as eat eating, as they may represent a combined effect of a number of nutrients, and eat habits could potentially demonstrate an interplay between other life-style factors, such as an overall poor victuals and physical inertia. If eating behaviours are observed to be causally linked to weight gain, then they could potentially represent practical strategies for obesity prevention. On these grounds, this move will explore a wide variety of evidence regarding the stand between eat skipping and weight gain. Furthermore, we shall discuss whether eat eating habits have been linked with overall dietary health and physical activity, as these factors are now known to be strongly linked with obesity.It is reasonable to assume that ones beliefs about eat will influence the likelihood of an individual engaging i n this behaviour. For example, early research reported that the majority of habitual eat eaters believed that breakfast was important for providing energy and increasing productivity throughout the morning (Chapman et al, 1998). More recently, among a UK national representative sample, it was reported that 64% of the population habitually consumed breakfast, whilst 6% skipped it. Moreover, the breakfast eaters believed that breakfast maintained weight control, whereas breakfast skippers believed that missing breakfast supported weight loss (Reeves et al, 2013). This evidence signifies that eating behaviours, such as breakfast skipping, are for the most part determined by what individuals believe. Some beliefs about scientific matters are thought confessedly despite substantial evidence disproving them, whereas other science-based beliefs are allegedly true even though inadequate evidence exists to support or disprove them (McCrory et al, 2014). This is important because a widely accepted belief is that frequently consuming breakfast compared with skipping breakfast is preventative of weight gain or causes weight loss.A recent meta-analysis reported that the risk for overweight and obesity increases by 55% when breakfast is skipped (Browns et al, 2013). As this association has often been reported, a theory has been developed which, if correct, may potentially explain how breakfast skipping can lead to weight gain. The theory states that when breakfast is skipped, there is an overcompensation for the energy missed at breakfast by ingesting more energy than one otherwise would have consumed at breakfast alone (Pereira et al, 2011). On the other hand, lets also consider that breakfast skipping could result in no weight change over time (in a scenario where breakfast skipping does not lead to overcompensation) or to weight loss (in a scenario where there is absence of compensation). While cross-sectional studies have generally reported that breakfast skipping le ads to weight gain, currently, there are limited high quality experimental evidence supporting this notion. It is also important to point out that all of the studies retrospected in the Browns et al (2013) meta-analysis, were cross-sectional thereby causality cannot be concluded from their ndings.Whilst randomised controlled trials do not directly allow conclusions to be drawn concerning fluctuations in energy balance, they do allow for conclusions to be made about temporary changes which, if constant over time, could potentially result in changes in energy balance. Yet, short-duration ( 1 week) randomized controlled trials investigating the effects of breakfast skipping on successive energy inhalation have been equivocal (Astbury et al, 2011 Leidy et al, 2013 Levitsky et al, 2013). For example two of these studies reported that impromptu lunch intake was greater after breakfast skipping, compared to when breakfast was consumed (Astbury et al, 2011 Leidy et al, 2013). In contras t, Levitsky et al (2013) showed under compensation at lunch, signifying that the collective intake across breakfast and lunch remained lower in the breakfast skipping condition. On the other hand, longer-duration (2-3 weeks) randomized controlled trials do not appear to show a relationship between breakfast skipping and weight gain (Farshchi et al, 2005 Schlundt et al, 1992 Tuttle et al, 1950). Although the results of these experimental trials are varied, they do not support for the theory that breakfast skipping leads to overeating.Furthermore, in prospective studies with up to 10 years follow-up, it has been observed that individuals who regularly ingest breakfast appear to gain less weight (Odegaard et al, 2013 Purslow et al, 2008 van der Heijden et al, 2007). One explanation for this could be that skipping breakfast may merely be an indication of overall lifestyle, for example, substantial evidence suggests that skipping breakfast is associated with a less nutritious diet and le ss physical activity (Szajewska et al, 2010 Rampersaud et al, 2005). This is significant because both of these modifiable factors are strongly correlated with the increased risk of obesity and other chronic diseases. For example, much epidemiological evidence shows a relationship between eating breakfast and healthier food choices and dietary habits (Skinner et al, 1985 Lattimore et al, 2010), whereas, breakfast skippers are associated with whole diets that are inadequate (Christakis et al, 1968 Serra-Majem et al, 2002). Of the studies mentioned above, two are outdated, nevertheless, they have been included to demonstrate that the association between breakfast consumption and healthy lifestyle habits has been repeatedly observed over the last 50 years or so, demonstrating that this relationship has remained constant over time. To further explain the results mentioned above, a recent review by Rampersaud et al (2005), revealed that habitual breakfast skippers were more likely to be o verweight compared to breakfast eaters, regardless of a higher overall energy intake in the breakfast eating group. It is possible that the combination of breakfast skipping with additional poor eating behaviours, such as an insufficient fruit and vegetable consumption, is alter to the results observed in this study, as it has been previously established that a low intake of fruit and vegetables increases the risk for obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (Hamer et al, 2007).Regarding physical activity, much epidemiological evidence reports that breakfast skippers are less likely to participate in physical activity (Cohen et al, 2003 Keski-Rahkonen et al, 2003 Aarnio et al, 2002). A proposed mechanism is that skipping breakfast may lead to lethargy and physical inactivity throughout the day (Pollitt et al, 1998 Meyers et al, 1989 Shaw et al, 1998) thereby contributing to positive energy balance and thus weight gain. Although there is a vast center of evidence supporting the idea t hat breakfast skipping is associated with poor dietary habits and physical inactivity, no conclusions can be drawn yet as the evidence which has in general found these positive associations have been drawn from cross-sectional and prospective studies which as mentioned before, do not prove causality.Clearly, obesity is a significant public health problem due to its high prevalence and important health consequences. Therefore, in order to provide practical recommendations for the control and/or prevention of obesity, its causal factors mustiness be identfied. Although there is substantial evidence linking breakfast skipping to weight gain, a reasoned conclusion cannot be drawn as the majority of studies reporting this association merely identify a relationship, not a causal pathway as they are cross-sectional or observational studies. On the other hand, experimental trials can usually determine causation. Regarding the trials reviewed in this essay, short-term trials have demonstra ted effects of breakfast skipping on energy intake and appetite later in the day, although together these results are ambiguous, also longer-term randomized controlled trials have not show effects of breakfast skipping on energy imbalance and subsequent weight change.Overall, the evidence we have discussed here does not strongly support the widely accepted theory that breakfast skipping leads to an overcompensation of energy in subsequent meals, nor does the evidence support a common belief that breakfast contributes to weight gain or loss. It can however be argued that whether an individual eats breakfast or not, this will not directly influence their risk of weight gain or obesity. In fact it could be argued that other lifestyle behaviours, such as physical inactivity and inadequate diets, are actually the factors driving this observed association. An integral issue when evaluating the impact that lifestyle behaviours have on obesity is that these behaviours are very tight to pre cisely measure within a large, generalizable population. Equally, trying to establish that one factor alone is impacting weight gain is a difficult task, as seen in this essay, many factors interact with and affect each other. Therefore, as to whether breakfast is the most important meal of the day with regards to the obesity, the jury is still out, so to speak. In the meantime, the unbiased recommendation to eat less and exercise more appears to still be the most effective tool in the prevention and treatment of obesity.Words 1569ReferencesAarnio, M., Winter, T., Kujala, U. and Kaprio, J., (2002). Associations of health related behaviour, social relationships, and health status with persistent physical activity and inactivity a study of Finnish adolescent twins. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36(5), p360-364.Astbury, N.M., Taylor, M.A. and Macdonald, I.A., (2011). breakfast consumption affects appetite, energy intake, and the metabolic and endocrine responses to foods consume d later in the day in male habitual breakfast eaters. The Journal of nutrition, 141 (7), p1381-1389.Brown, A.W., Brown, M.M.B. and Allison, D.B., 2013. Belief beyond the evidence using the proposed effect of breakfast on obesity to show 2 practices that distort scientific evidence. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 98(5), pp.1298-1308.Chapman, G.E. and Melton, C.L., (1998). College and university students breakfast consumption patterns behaviours, beliefs, motivations and personalized and environmental influences. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 59 (4), p176.Christakis, G., Miridjanian, A., Nath, L., Khurana, H.S., Cowell, C., Archer, M., Frank, O., Ziffer, H., Baker, H. and James, G., 1968. A nutritional epidemiologic investigation of 642 New York City children. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 21 (1), p107-126.Cohen, B., Evers, S., Manske, S., Bercovitz, K. and Edward, H.G., (2003). Smoking, physical activity and breakfast consumption amon g secondary school students in a southwestern Ontario community. Canadian Journal of Public Health/ revaluation Canadienne de Santee Publique, p41-44.Farshchi, H.R., Taylor, M.A. and Macdonald, I.A., (2005). Deleterious effects of omitting breakfast on insulin sensitivity and fasting lipid profiles in healthy lean women. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 81 (2), p388-396.Hamer, M. and Chida, Y., (2007). use of goods and services of fruit, vegetables, and antioxidants and risk of type 2 diabetes systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of hypertension, 25 (12), p2361-2369.Keski-Rahkonen, A., Kaprio, J., Rissanen, A., Virkkunen, M. and Rose, R.J., (2003). Breakfast skipping and health-compromising behaviors in adolescents and adults. European journal of clinical nutrition, 57(7), p842-853.Lattimore, P., Walton, J., Bartlett, S., Hackett, A. and Stevenson, L., (2010). Regular consumption of a cereal breakfast. Effects on mood and body image satisfaction in adult non-obes e women. Appetite, 55(3), p512-521.Leidy, H.J., Ortinau, L.C., Douglas, S.M. and Hoertel, H.A., (2013). Beneficial effects of a higher-protein breakfast on the appetitive, hormonal, and skittish signals controlling energy intake regulation in overweight/obese,breakfast-skipping, late-adolescent girls. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 97(4), p677-688.Levitsky, D.A. and Pacanowski, C.R., (2013). Effect of skipping breakfast on subsequent energy intake. Physiology behavior, 119, p9-16.McCrory, M.A., (2014). repast skipping and variables related to energy balance in adults A brief review, with emphasis on the breakfast meal. Physiology behavior, 134, p51-54.Meyers, A.F., (1989). Undernutrition, hunger, and learning in children. Nutrition news (USA).Odegaard, A.O., Jacobs, D.R., Steffen, L.M., Van Horn, L., Ludwig, D.S. and Pereira, M.A., (2013). Breakfast frequency and development of metabolic risk. Diabetes care, 36 (10), p3100-3106.Pereira, M.A., Erickson, E., McKee, P., Schrankler, K., Raatz, S.K., Lytle, L.A. and Pellegrini, A.D., (2011). Breakfast frequency and quality may affect glycemia and appetite in adults and children. The Journal of nutrition, 141(1), p163-168.Pollitt, E. and Mathews, R., (1998). Breakfast and cognition an endogenic summary. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 67(4), p804-813.Public Health England contributor. (2017). Adult Obesity. Available http//www.noo.org.uk/NOO_about_obesity/adult_obesity. function accessed 13th Mar 2017.Purslow, L.R., Sandhu, M.S., Forouhi, N., Young, E.H., Luben, R.N., Welch, A.A., Khaw, K.T., Bingham, S.A. and Wareham, N.J., 2008. Energy intake at breakfast and weight change prospective study of 6,764 middle-aged men and women. American journal of epidemiology, 167(2), p188-192.Rampersaud, G.C., Pereira, M.A., Girard, B.L., Adams, J. and Metzl, J.D., (2005). Breakfast habits, nutritional status, body weight, and academic performance in children and adolescents. Journal of the American D ietetic Association, 105(5), p743-760.Reeves, S., Halsey, L.G., McMeel, Y. and Huber, J.W., (2013). Breakfast habits, beliefs and measures of health and wellbeing in a nationally representative UK sample. Appetite, 60, p51-57.Schlundt, D.G., Hill, J.O., Sbrocco, T., Pope-Cordle, J. and Sharp, T., (1992). The role of breakfast in the treatment of obesity a randomized clinical trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 55(3), p645-651.Serra-Majem, L., Bartrina, J.A., Prez-Rodrigo, C., Ribas-Barba, L. and Delgado-Rubio, A., (2006). Prevalence and deteminants of obesity in Spanish children and young people. British Journal of Nutrition, 96(1), p67-72.Shaw, M.E., (1998). Adolescent breakfast skipping an Australian study. Adolescence, 33(132), p851-862.Skinner, J.D., Salvetti, N.N., Ezell, J.M., Penfield, M.P. and Costello, C.A., (1985). Appalachian adolescents eating patterns and nutrient intakes. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 85(9), p1093-1099.Szajewska, H. and R uszczyski, M., (2010). Systematic review demonstrating that breakfast consumption influences body weight outcomes in children and adolescents in Europe. lively reviews in food science and nutrition, 50(2), p113-119.Tuttle, W.W., Daum, K., Myers, L. and Martin, C., (1950). Effect of omitting breakfast on the physiologic response of men. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 26, p332-335.Heijden, A.A., Hu, F.B., Rimm, E.B. and Dam, R.M., (2007). A prospective study of breakfast consumption and weight gain among US men. Obesity, 15(10), p2463-2469.WHO contributor. (2015). facts on obesity. Available http//www.who.int/features/factfiles/obesity/facts/en/index4.html. Last accessed 13th Mar 2017.WHO contributor. (2016). Obesity and overweight. Available http//www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/. Last accessed 13th Mar 2017.